Intellectual property right Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Intellectual property right - Assignment Example To a certain extent, it prevents the plethora of similar products. It helps an organization to remain unique in its own products. This paper discusses the necessity of Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and how it provides good protection for traditional knowledge as well as patents. The Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international agreement, administered by the World Trade Organization (WTO). It annotates minimum standards and guidelines for the various forms of intellectual property (IP) regulations, for nations who are signatories of the WTO. TRIPS came into existence in 1994, through the negotiations in the final stages of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), guaranteeing protection for many things. When the Uruguay Round concluded and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) was put into force in 1994 many believed that it is a step towards reaching a global solution for many product violation cases. (Alsegard 2004). Trips recommends all its signatory nations to follow and bring into effect the laws protecting intellectual property of various organizations, countries or individuals. The signatories consist of 153 countries, which represent s close to 95% of total world trade. These countries can be assured of, if or when they implement TRIPs, will be the avoidance of the economic and trade sanctions which industrialised countries would be entitled to impose under the terms of GATT. (McGrath 1996). There are certain standards which the nations laws should meet with regards to IP rights including: copyright rights, like the rights of performers including music artists, films, geographical indications, trademarks, etc, etc. These standards are stipulated by the TRIPS. Hence the WTO’s TRIPS agreement aims to facilitate the protection of rights in a more efficient way and so that it can be

Soft Drink Industry Case Study Essay Example for Free

Soft Drink Industry Case Study Essay Introduction Description The soft drink industry is concentrated with the three major players, Coca-Cola Co. , PepsiCo Inc. , and Cadbury Schweppes Plc. , making up 90 percent of the $52 billion dollar a year domestic soft drink market (Santa, 1996). The soft drink market is a relatively mature market with annual growth of 4-5% causing intense rivalry among brands for market share and growth (Crouch, Steve). This paper will explore Porters Five Forces to determine whether or not this is an attractive industry and what barriers to entry (if any) exist. In addition, we will discuss several critical success factors and the future of the industry. Segments The soft drink industry has two major segments, the flavor segment and the distribution segment. The flavor segment is divided into 6 categories and is listed in table 1 by market share. The distribution segment is divided in to 7 segments: Supermarkets 31. 9%, fountain operators 26. 8%, vending machines 11. 5%, convenience stores 11. 4%, delis and drug stores 7. 9%, club stores 7. 3%, and restaurants 3. 2%. Table 1: Market Share 19901991199219931994 Cola69. 9 69. 768. 36765. 9 Lemon-Lime11. 711. 812 12. 112. 3 Pepper5. 66. 26. 97. 37. 6 Root 2. 72. 82. 32. 72. 7 Orange2. 32. 3 2. 62. 32. 3 Other7. 87. 27. 98. 69. 2 Source: Industry Surveys, 1995 Caveats The only limitations on access to information were: 1. Financial information has not yet been made available for 1996. 2. The majority of the information targets the end consumer and not the sales volume from the major soft drink producers to local distributors. 3. There was no data available to determine over capacity. Socio-Economic Relevant Governmental or Environmental Factors, etc. The Federal Government regulates the soft drink industry, like any industry where the public ingests the products. The regulations vary from ensuring clean, safe products to regulating what those products can contain. For example, the government has only approved four sweeteners that can be used in the making of a soft drink (Crouch, Steve). The soft drink industry currently has had very little impact on the environment. One environmental issue of concern is that the use of plastics adversely affects the environment due to the unusually long time it takes for it to degrade. To combat this, the major competitors have lead in the recycling effort which starting with aluminum and now plastics. The only other adverse environmental impact is the plastic straps that hold the cans together in 6-packs. These straps have been blamed for the deaths of fish and mammals in both fresh and salt water. Economic Indicators Relevant for this Industry The general growth of the economy has had a slight positive influence on the growth of the industry. The general growth in volume for the industry, 4-5 percent, has been barely keeping up with inflation and growths on margins have been even less, only 2-3 percent (Crouch, Steve). Threat of New Entrants Economies of Scale Size is a crucial factor in reducing operating expenses and being able to make strategic capital outlays. By consolidating the fragmented bottling side of the industry, operating expenses may be spread over a larger sales base, which reduces the per case cost of production. In addition, larger corporate coffers allow for capital investment in automated high speed bottling lines that increase efficiency (Industry Surveys, 1995). This trend is supported by the decline in the number of production workers employed by the industry at higher wages and fewer hours. This in conjunction with the increased value of shipments over the period shows the increase in efficiency and the economies gained by consolidation (See table 2). Table 2 General Statistics: Year CompaniesWorkersHoursWagesValue of Shipments 1982162642. 485. 27. 84 16807. 5 198341. 585. 18. 2417320. 8 198439. 8 81. 78. 5118052 1985141437. 277. 89. 119358. 2 1986 133535. 573. 59. 7720686. 8 1987119035. 471. 510. 45 22006 1988113535. 271. 810. 7823310. 3 1989102733. 4 67. 710. 9823002. 1 19909413265. 711. 4823847. 5 1991 31. 966. 811. 8525191. 1 199229. 861. 612. 46 26260. 4 199328. 659. 312. 9327224. 4 199427. 4 56. 913. 3928188. 5 199526. 254. 513. 8629152. 5 1996 2552. 114. 3230116. 5 Source: Manufacturing USA, 4th Ed. Further evidence of economies is supported by the increased return on assets from 1992-1995, as shown in table 3. Coke and Pepsi clearly show increased return on assets as the asset base increases. However, Cadbury/Schweppes does not show conclusive evidence from 95 to 96. Table 3 CADBURY/SCHWEPPES93949596 ASSETS2963100 326690035015004595000 SALES33724003724800 40296004776000 NET INCOME195600236800261900300000 Sales/Income5. 80%6. 36% 6. 50%6. 28% Income/Assets6. 60%7. 25%7. 48%6. 53% COKE ASSETS11051934120210001387300015041000 SALES 13073860139630001618100018018000 NET INCOME1664382217600025540002986000 Sales/Income12. 73%15. 58%15. 78%16. 57% Income/Assets15. 06%18. 10% 18. 41%19. 85% PEPSI ASSETS20951200237058002479200025432000 SALES 21970000250210002847240030421000 NET INCOME374300158800017520001606000 Sales/Income 1. 70%6. 35%6. 15%5. 28% Income/Assets1. 79%6. 70%7. 07%6. 31% Source: Compact Disclosure Capital Requirements The requirements within this industry are very high. Production and distribution systems are extensive and necessary to compete with the industry leaders. Table 4 shows the average capital expenditures by the three industry leaders. Table 4 Dec-95Dec-94Jan-94Jan-93 Receivables1624333 138576712266331077912 Inventories867666. 7 803666. 7777366. 7716673. 7 Plant Equip5986333 579536752466004642058 Total Assets15022667 140555001299790011655411 Source: Compact Disclosure The magnitude of these expenditures causes this to be a high barrier to entry. Proprietary Product Differences Each firm has brands that are unique in packaging and image, however any of the product differences that may develop are easily duplicated. However, secret formulas do create a difference or good will that cannot be duplicated. The best example of this is the New Coke fiasco of 1985. Coke reformulated its product due to test marketing results that showed New Coke beat Pepsi 47% to 43% and New Coke was preferred over old Coke by a 10% margin. However, Coke executives did not take into account the good will created by the old Coke name and formula. The introduction of New Coke as a replacement of Coke was met by outrage and unrelenting protest by the public. Three months from the initial launch of New Coke, management apologized to the public and reissued the old Coke formula. Test marking shows that there is only a small difference in actual product taste (52% Pepsi, 48% Coke), but the good will created by a brand can have significant proprietary differences (Dess, 1993). This is a high barrier to entry. Absolute Cost Advantage Brands do have secret formulas, which makes them unique and new entry into the industry difficult. New products must remain outside of patented zones but these differences can be slight. This leads to the conclusion that the absolute cost advantage is a low barrier within this industry. Learning Curve The shift in the manufacturing of soft drinks is gravitating toward automation due to speed and cost. However, industry technology is low and the manufacturing process is not difficult, therefore the learning curve will be short and will have a low barrier to entry. Access to Inputs All the inputs within the soft drink industry are commodity items. These include cane, beet, corn syrup, honey, concentrated fruit juice, plastic, glass, and aluminum. Access to these inputs is not a barrier to enter the industry. Proprietary Low Cost Production The process of manufacturing soft drinks is not a proprietary process. The methods used in the process are relatively standard within the industry and the knowledge needed to begin production can easily be acquired. This is not a barrier to entry. Brand Identity This is a very strong force within the industry. It takes a long time to develop a brand that has recognition and customer loyalty. Brand loyalty is indeed the HOLY GRAIL to American consumer product companies. (Industry Surveys, 1995) A well recognized brand will foster customer loyalty and creates the opportunity for real market share growth, price flexibility, and above average profitability (Industry Surveys, 1995). Therefore this is a high barrier to entry. Access to Distribution Distribution is a critical success factor within the industry. Without the network, the product cannot get to the final consumer. The most successful soft drink producers are aggressively expanding their distribution channels and consolidating the independent bottling and distribution centers. From 1978 to the present, the number of Coca-Cola bottlers decreased from 370 to 120 (Industry Surveys, 1995). In addition, 31. 9% of the soft drink business is in supermarkets, where acquiring shelf space is very difficult (Santa, 1996). This is a high barrier to entry. Expected Retaliation Market share within the industry is critical; therefore any attempt to take market share from the leaders will result in significant retaliation. The soft drink industry is a moderately mature market with slow single digit growth (Industry Surveys, 1995). Projected growth rates are 4-5% in sales volume and 2- 3% in margin (Crouch, Steve). Therefore, growth in market share is obtained by stealing share from rivals causing retaliation to be high in defense of current market position. This is a high barrier to entry. Conclusion To be successful on a large scale, the high capital requirements for manufacturing, distribution, and marketing are high barriers to entry. Therefore the threat of new entrants is low making this an attractive industry. Suppliers Supplier concentration Supplier concentration is low due to the fact that the main ingredients are sugar (cane and beet), water, various chemicals, and aluminum cans, plastic and glass bottles. There are many places to get sugar and ingredients for soft drinks because they are commodity items. The containers (aluminum cans, bottles etc.) make up 36 percent of all the inputs that the industry uses. Other supplies like sugars, syrups and extracts account for 23 percent of the inputs (Manufacturing USA). There are five major suppliers of glass bottles. Altrista Corp. , Anchor Glass Container, Glassware of Chile, Owens Illinois, and Vistro Sa are the major makers of glass bottles (Compact Disclosure). This is a fair amount of suppliers considering that only five percent of soft drink sales are in glass bottles. There are even more suppliers of plastic bottles. This is good because 43% of all sales are from plastic bottles (Prince, 1996). All this makes the concentration for glass and plastic suppliers moderate. The aluminum can industry is even older and more established than the plastic industry. Reynolds Metal Products, American National Can Company and Metal Container Corp. are the main suppliers of aluminum cans. 50. 6% of total soft drink sales are packaged in aluminum cans (Prince, 1996). Since the aluminum industry is older and more established, these are likely to be the only manufacturers for a while. Even though the concentration of aluminum producers are low there are only three major players in the industry, Coke, Pepsi, and Cadbury. These three account for nearly 90% of domestic soft drink sales (Dawson, 1996). This makes the balance of power slightly favor the suppliers of aluminum cans, even though the number of producers and buyers are equal (3). Syrups and extracts account for 16. 7% of input costs to the soft drink industry (Manufacturing USA, Fourth Ed. ). Even though these are a small percentage of inputs, all the major soft drink companies own companies that produce flavoring extracts and syrups (Industry Surveys, 1995). This is probably due to the fact that they all have secret formulas and this is how they protect the secret. Coke, Pepsi, and Dr. Pepper all have secret formulas. This makes the concentration of suppliers for extracts very low but they are owned by the soft drink industry. This backward integration by the major players makes the power question moot. Suppliers do have limited power over the soft drink industry. The concentration of suppliers remains relatively low, which would seem to give the supplier power. The shear mass and volume that the industry buys negates that effect and balances, if not tips it back toward the soft drink industry. Presence of Substitute Inputs There is not a lot of variety in inputs. The biggest substitute input was when the industry switched from aluminum cans to plastic bottles. This made the glass industry almost shake out completely. The next big substitute input was for sugar. Since people were demanding more and more ways to lose weight and consume fewer calories, the diet soft drink exploded in sales. This demand made the soft drink industry find an alternative to sugar to sweeten their product. This substitute turned out to be Nutrasweet non-sugar sweetener. This was found to reduce the calories and retain the taste of their respective products. Other sweeteners, like molasses, do not work because they change the flavor of the product. Most of these substitute inputs had already taken place so they become less relevant to the industry as time marched on. Substitute inputs usually do not become important until the customer or market changes dramatically. This happens when new studies come out from the government about how harmful something is. This was the case when scientists came out with the study that stated that saccharin was harmful to rats. The industry had to respond by reducing its use of saccharin and look for a substitute. At this time, the industry found Nutrasweet to be a reasonable substitute for saccharin, which was used more heavily in diet drinks. All in all, there are a lot of substitutes for packaging but not for sweeteners because these sweeteners must have government approval (Crouch, Steve). This makes suppliers have power over the industry as seen in the almost overnight empire of Nutrasweet. This will most likely change drastically when Aspirtain (Nutrasweet) loses its patent in a few years. Differentiation of InputsÃ'Ž Sugar is commonly available while Nutrasweet is patented. There is no differentiation for sugar and only one choice in Nutrasweet. As far as the other chemicals and inputs, they are commodity items, and it does not matter who supplies them. This makes suppliers have little power over the soft drink industry. Importance of Volume to Supplier The soft drink industry buys a large portion of the Nutrasweet market but their percentage of purchases are falling as other products begin to use it. Sugar is bought but not in the volume that the grocery store or other industries do. The aluminum can, plastic bottles and glass bottles (less now) are all pretty much dependent on the soft drink industry for their livelihood. This makes the supplier have pretty much no power over the industry. Impact of Input on Cost or Differentiation Since the inputs are basic elements there is no differentiation and therefore no impact on the final product for using different inputs. If the price of the input changed, it would dramatically change the price of the product as the aluminum cartel did in 1994. Since the major inputs are commodity items, the prices can change dramatically due to environmental forces. If the sugar industry suffers a loss due to weather or because of political unrest (like in Cuba), then the prices go up and the soft drink industry is usually left absorbing them. The soft drink industry can not, in all cases, simply pass along the price increase. Customers and distributors are more price sensitive than ever. This makes the supplier have a fair amount of bargaining power over the industry. Threat of Backward or Forward Integration With the current climate of sticking to the core of the company, there is little threat of backward integration into the suppliers industry. This is after the fact that they already have integrated into the extracts to protect their secrets. The integration into the extract-producing segment of the suppliers will be the extent of the backward integration. The suppliers do not have the capital required to forward integrate into the soft drink industry. This makes the industry attractive for investment. Access to Capital The soft drink industry is very profitable and therefore looked upon favorably by financial institutions. This includes the stock market, direct investors (bondholders), and banks. Currently the operating margins for the industry have grown from 17. 9% in 1992 to 19. 5% in 1996. The projected operating margins are projected to grow to 20. 5% from 1997 to 2001 (Value Line 1996). The profit margins and demand are increasing for the soft drink industry (Industry Surveys, 1995). What this means is that capital is available for expansion or upgrading, if additional capital is required. This is favorable to the industry. Access to Labor The industry is not highly technical except for chemical engineering. This means that the demands for skilled labor are not very high. Which means that the soft drink industry will not have trouble finding labor. There are no established labor unions. The average labor cost is no more than in any other industry. The average hourly wage is $11. 85 per hour, which just about the same as all manufacturing firms of $11. 49 (Manufacturing USA). Summary of Suppliers When you sum up the different aspects of the suppliers you come to the quick conclusion that the power is definitely in the hands of the soft drink industry. This makes the industry very attractive for investment and for the companies already in the industry from the supply aspect. This means that it is attractive to new entrants as well. Buyers Buyer Concentration versus Industry Concentration The buyers for the soft drink industry are members of a large network of bottlers and distributors that represent the major soft drink companies at the local level. Distributors purchase the finished, packaged product from the soft drink companies while bottlers purchase the major ingredients. With the consolidation that has occurred within the industry, there is little difference between the two. Distributors are assigned to represent a specific geographic area, for example a town or a county. In turn, these distributors are responsible for distributing the product to the retailers who sell the products to the end consumer. In recent years, the national companies have been purchasing independent bottlers in an effort to consolidate the business and gain some distribution economies of scale (Thompson and Strickland, 1993). Buyer Volume The contractual agreements, which are present in this industry, dictate that the major soft drink companies will sell their products to the distributors. Therefore, buyer volume is not a factor for this industry. Buyer Switching CostÃ'Ž Independent bottlers have contractual agreements to represent that company within a certain area. Switching costs would include establishing new relationships with other companies to represent and the legal costs associated with distributors being released from the contract. Buyer Information Distributors are very informed about the product that they are distributing. Information flows freely between the soft drink Companies and the local distributors and down to the retailers. There are many co-operative promotions where distributors and soft drink companies collaborate on price and advertising campaigns (Crouch, Steve). For example, major soft drink firms will send a regular report out to its distributors describing upcoming promotional events where the cost will be shared between the two companies. For promotions that fall outside of this report, the distributors will have to coordinate that sponsorship with the soft drink company. Threat of Backward Integration It is doubtful that local distributors will move into the actual production process of soft drinks. Distributors specialize in the transportation and promotion of the product that they rely on the carbonated beverage companies produce. However, major retailers; for example Wal-Mart and Harris Teeter have begun distributing their own private label brands of soft drinks. Wal-Mart now offers Sams Choice and Harris Teeter offers Presidents Choice at a significantly lower price. These private label competitors will not provide the variety of packaging alternatives, which make the national leaders so successful (PepsiCo 1995 Annual Report). For example, Pepsi offers 12-ounce cans, 20 ounce bottles, 1 liter bottles, six packs, twelve packs, cases and The Cube 24 can boxes. Pull Through Pull through is not a factor from the independent bottlers perspective. These bottlers have a franchise agreement to represent a major carbonated beverage company on the local level. These distributors are legally bound to represent these companies and therefore cannot choose not to promote certain types of beverages. Brand Identity of Buyers Brand identity of buyers is not relevant to the distributors because of the contractual relationship that exists where distributors represent the soft drink companies. The distributors have an exclusive contractual agreement to represent that soft drink brand. Price Sensitivity Distributors are not highly price sensitive buyers. Independent bottlers are on a national contract so all distributors pay the same price for the same products. Price to Total Purchases Soft drinks are the single product that the distributors are concerned with so price is very important to them. Soft drink companies rely on these distributors to represent them on the local level, so it is important to maintain a healthy relationship. Impact on Quality and Performance All three of the leading carbonated beverage producers, Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, and Cadbury Schweppes believe that their buyers (distributors) are an important step in taking their products to the end consumer. The service, which their distributors provide to the retailers, makes a difference to the retailers who sell the product to the end consumer. The actions of that distributor reflect on the soft drink company so if the distributor does not provide the level of service that retailer or restaurant desires, it may harm the companys image. Substitute Products Relative price/performance relationship of Substitutes The carbonated beverage industry provides a non-alcoholic means of satisfying an individuals desire to quench their thirst. Traditionally, coffee and tea would be considered substitute products. In recent years, carbonated beverages have seen the emergence of many new substitute products that wish to reduce soft drinks market share. The soft drink market has been traditionally competitive, without the added friction from ready to drink tea, shelf stable juice, sports drinks and still-water competitors also. (Gleason, 1996) Leaders in these emerging segments include Quaker Oats, with their Snapple and Gatorade products, Perrier, and Arizona Iced Teas. In other words, Pepsi isnt Cokes biggest competition, Tap water is. (Gleason, 1996). Generally speaking, soft drinks are less expensive to the consumer than these substitute products. Buyer Propensity to Substitute Buyer propensity to substitute is low due to the contractual relationships between the soft drink companies and the distributors. Rivalry Degree of Concentration and Balance among Competitors Three main competitors: Pepsico, Coca-Cola, and Dr. Pepper/Cadbury control the Soft Drink industry. Their combined total sales revenues account for 90 percent of the entire domestic market. This market dominance makes the industry a fiercely competitive and dynamic business environment to operate in. The single market leader is Coca-Cola with a 42 percent market share and over $18 billion in sales worldwide. PepsiCo maintains a 31 percent market share with $10. 5 billion in sales worldwide. The smallest of the three leaders is Dr. Pepper/Cadbury, which holds roughly 16 percent of the market. Cokes consistent dominance of both Pepsi and Dr. Pepper/Cadbury has caused Coke to become a household name when referring to soft drinks. As far as balance among competitors is concerned, PepsiCo is a much larger company than Coke and Dr. Pepper/Cadbury combined. The reason being that PepsiCo also owns companies in the snack and food industries (Frito-Lay, Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, and KFC). With a work force of 480,000 people, PepsiCo is the worlds third largest employer behind General Motors and Wal-Mart. This has not lead to a more profitable soft drink business, nor has it helped PepsiCo use its size to steal market share from Coke or Dr. Pepper/Cadbury. Diversity among Competitors Though Coca-Cola dominates the industry in sales volume and market share, it does not dominate when it comes to innovative marketing and business strategy efforts. For instance, PepsiCo generates 71 percent of its revenues from the U. S. , while Coca-Cola derives 71 percent of its from international markets. Similarly, PepsiCo only gets 41 percent of its total revenues from soft drinks. The remaining 59 percent come from its snack and food business. Coke on the other hand gets all of its revenues from its soft drinks. Clearly both of the industry leaders have different strategies as far as revenue generation is concerned. However, as far as their product lines are concerned they are very similar and operate parallel to one another. Pepsi and Coca-Cola both have lemon-lime, citrus, root beer, and cola flavors. Dr. Pepper/Cadbury does not have as similar a product line to that of Pepsico and Coca-Cola. It manufactures Dr. Pepper (a unique spicy cola drink), ginger ale, tonic water, and carbonated water under its Schweppes and Canada Dry brands. Coke does have an answer to Dr. Pepper in its Mr. Pibb, but only holds a . 4 percent market share compared to Dr. Peppers 6 percent market share. The relatively low level of diversity makes the soft drink industry unattractive for investment. Industry Growth Rate Although new product lines have come into the beverage industry over the past two to three years, the soft drink segment has held and grown its share steadily. The onslaught of the sport drink and bottled tea have proven to be a passing fad that has gained little if no long term market share from soft drinks. Growth figures for the soft drink industry have been very steady since 1993, and are projected to continue to be so into the last part of the twentieth century. As can be seen in Figure 1, volatility was somewhat prevalent in the 1980s but has since lessened and leveled off (Valueline, 1996). Figure 1 Year87-8888-8989-9090-9191- 9292-9393-9494-95 Growth5. 7%5. 2%2% 3%2. 9%4%4. 4%4% Over the past ten years soft drinks have gained 5 percent of total beverage sales, putting them over the 25 percent share level for all beverage sales. As for new and emerging markets, both Coke and Pepsi are attacking the international environment. Coca-Cola generates 80 percent of its revenues abroad, and Pepsi is attempting but failing to put more emphasis there as well. Pepsi is losing customers to Coke in every major foreign territory. The company has always struggled overseas, but in the past few months it has lost key strongholds in Russia and Venezuela to Coke (Sellers, 1996). Because of the consistent growth of both the domestic and foreign markets, the soft drink industry is attractive for investment. Fixed Costs The SP Industry Survey has shown the soft drink industry profit margin to be on a steady incline over the past fifteen years. Levels in 1980 were near 14%, while as of year-end 1995 were over 20% and expected to flatten a bit. This flattening effect may be an indication that fixed costs are on the rise due to expansionÃ'Ž

Climate Change and Food Security

Climate Change and Food Security INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study Our activities are inimical to the environment, our daily work and behaviour domestically, industrially and even agriculturally threatens the stability of environment as well as balance of the ecosystem. We often burn bushes to farm, we practice agriculture without due regard to the environment (oil), we cut/fell trees down without knowing that we are altering the eco- system and nature. All these human activities are threatening the nature and at the end, we ourselves are to face the consequences and are to be blamed. (Professor David Ukali, chairman of NEST, Nov, 2010) David Ukali’s statement explains how human activities lead to the backlash we experience in our environment today. Man suffers various environmental changes as a result of inappropriate agricultural practices coupled with unscrupulous destructions of various important elements in the environment. Climate change is perhaps the most serious environmental threat to the fight against hunger, malnutrition, disease and poverty in Africa, mainly through its impact on agricultural productivity. Climate change is one of the most serious environmental threats facing mankind worldwide. Climate change may already be impacting Nigeria as manifested by increased flooding, delayed rains, enhanced desertification, increasing bush fires and food insecurity.It affects agriculture in several ways, including its direct impact on food production. Climate change which is attributable to the natural climate cycle and human activities, has adversely affected agricultural productivity in Africa (Zierv ogel et al. 2006). That there is a change in the global climatic system is no longer in doubt. For instance, the periods we used to have rain have changed its proportion in terms of sun rays and that is why it has been generally agreed that this climate change which is posing the greatest threat to man and life on planet earth is gaining acceptance and that in the coming decade the world will witness higher temperatures and changing in precipitation levels which would lead to low/ poor agricultural income. The issue of climate change has become more threatening not only to the sustainable development of socio-economic and agricultural activities of any nation but to the totality of human existence (Adejuwon, 2004). Rough estimates suggest that over the next 50years or so climatic change will likely have a serious threat to meeting global food needs than any other constraints on agricultural system. (IPCC; 2007, BNRCC, 2008). Available evidence shows that climate change is global; sea level rose about 17 centimetres (6.7 inches) in the last century and the rate has doubled in the last decade, there has been a rise in the global temperature even though the 2000s witnessed a solar output decline resulting in an unusually deep solar minimum in 2007-2009, surface temperatures continue to increase, glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world including in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and Africa, likewise its impacts but the most adverse effects will be felt mainly by developing countries, especially those in Africa, due to their low level of coping capabilities (Nwafor 2007; Jagtap 2007). Nigeria is viewed as one of these developing countries (Odjugo, 2010). Nigeria is experiencing adverse climate conditions with adverse impacts on the welfare of millions of its population, as the planet warms, rainfall patterns shift, and extreme events such as droughts, floods, and forest fires become more frequent (Zoellick 2009). Many African countries, which have their economies largely based on weather- sensitive Agricultural production system like Nigeria, are particularly vulnerable to climate change (Dinar et al, 2008). This vulnerability has been demonstrated by the devastating effects of recent flooding in the Niger- Delta region of the country and the various prolonged drought that are currently witnessed in some part of Northern region. According to Olanrewaju (2003), climatic change is any form of long term climatic inconsistency. The recent changes in the climate have been linked with the increase in greenhouse gases (GHG) on the atmosphere in addition to anthropogenic activities and support emissions of other artificial chlorocarbons (Olanrewaju, 2003). Climate change is also believed to result from the effect of global warming on the environment. Global warming is regarded by many people to be the most serious environmental challenge of modern times (Giddens, 2006). Global warming refers to the gradual rise of the earth’s average temperature due to changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere; it is believed to be caused in parts by humans, because the gases that have built up and altered the earth’s atmosphere are the ones produced in large quantities by human activities. Global warming means that many dry areas are going to get drier and wet areas are going to get wetter. â€Å"Climate change in Nigeria is a ticking time bomb and it exists little or even nothing to mitigate its effects.†(Nnimmo Bassey, Nigeria.) Peer-reviewed research accepted by the Journal of Geography and Regional Planning concludes that Nigeria’s average temperature has risen by 1.7 degrees in the period 1901-2005. The inc rease has been higher in the semi-arid regions and lower in the coastal zone; the rate of change has increased since the 1970s. The consequence for the Nigerian people is a geographical pincer threat from desertification in the north and coastal erosion in the south. Through a combination of overgrazing, abuse of woodland for fuel and increasingly unreliable rainfall, the Sahara is advancing at an estimated rate of 600 meters per annum, rising sea levels threaten Nigeria’s coastal regions the Niger Delta may be the source of oil wealth but its low-lying terrain crisis-crossed with waterways makes it extremely vulnerable to flooding and salinization i.e. the build-up of salts in soil eventually to toxic level for plant. Food security is the outcome of food system processes all along the food chain; climate change will affect food security through its impacts on all components of global, national and local food system. The definition of food security as adopted at the World Food Summit (WFS) in November 1996 says that; â€Å"food security exists when all people at all times have physical or economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life† ( FAO, 1996). One of the biggest threats is growing climate unpredictability, which makes subsistence farming difficult, the impact of the change will be difficult to handle and it will be potentially very long lasting,Droughts are getting worse and climate uncertainty is growing, Climate change is thus an unprecedented threat to food security (Medugu, 2013). Arid and semi-arid areas in northern Nigeria are becoming drier, while the southern part of the country are getting wetter, as the weather gets warmer most of the aquatic life, the fish, tend to seek colder waters thereby emptying Nigeria’s vast waters of marine resources, and which by extension means Nigeria’s reliance on imported fish and other sea foods increases. Climate change often appears very esoteric but in Nigeria; it is real, Currently there is an increasing incidence of disease, declining agricultural productivity, and rising incidences of heat waves (Stringer et al., 2009). The threat that climate change poses to agricultural production does not only cover the area of crop husbandry but also includes livestock and in fact the total agricultural sector. The impacts of climate change on agriculture can be classified into biophysical and socioeconomic impact (Khanal, 2009). Climate can also affect the quantity and quality of feed stuffs such as pasture, forage, and grain and also the severity and distribution of livestock diseases and parasite (Niggol and Mendelsohn 2008). Climate change impacts the four key dimensions of food security, namely food availability, food stability, food accessibility, and food utilization. According to vision 2020 as declared by the government of late president Umar Musa Yar’dua in October 2009 stated that; â€Å"by 2020 Nigeria will have a large, strong, diversified, sustainable and competitive economy that effectively harness the talents and energies of its people and responsibly exploits its natural endowments to guarantee a high standard of living and quality of life to its citizens† the declared aims of Nigeria’s national agricultural policy are; firstly attain food security, secondly increase production and productivity, thirdly generate employment and income and fourthly expand exports and reduce food imports thereby freeing resources for critical infrastructure development and delivery of social services. To achieve this aims, the problem of climate change as to be curtailed so as to enhance future possibilities of economic development and growth which is the major goal of the country. 1.2 Statement of the Problem In Nigeria, agriculture has tended to be the main source of food, and a major source of industrial raw material, as well as the means of earning foreign exchange. It employs close to 70% of the Nigeria’s population. Agricultural practice in the country is predominantly rain-fed and therefore particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, and a study report by ( Harvard Business School) HBS in 2010 predicted that under a business as-usual scenario, Nigeria’s agricultural productivity could decline by between 10-25% by 2080, in certain parts a decline in rain-fed agriculture could be as high as 50%, exposure to extreme events makes subsistence and small scale farmers most vulnerable to climate change because of their limited capacity to adapt. Therefore, Nigeria’s vulnerability will be in two ways: The resulting impacts of climate change The impact of response measures this is because Nigeria’s economy is highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, export and consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive products. As a result of the global climatic change, Nigeria has been affected greatly as there has been variations in the weather condition and also the frequent flooding that have led to the destruction of properties and also death of many Nigerians especially in the riverine area of the country. 1.3 Research Questions The research questions for the study are as follows; 1) What is the relationship between climate change and food security? 2) What has been the effect of global climate change on food security in Nigeria? 3) What is the impact of climate change on food security in Ogun State? Objectives of the Study The primary objective is to examine global climate change and how it affects food security in Ogun State, Nigeria. It can be achieved through the following. 1) Explaining the relationship between climate change and food security 2) Identifying and analysing the effects of global climate change on food security in Ogun State. 3) Illustrating the impact of climate change on food security in Ogun state Research Hypotheses For the purpose of this research some hypotheses are intended to be formulated and tested. The hypotheses are drawn from the objective research questions of the study. The hypotheses are: Hypothesis one: H0: global climate change does not have a great impact on food security in Ogun State H1: global climate change has a great impact on food security in Ogun State Hypothesis two: H0: Adequate efforts have not been made to reduce the effects of global climate change on food security in Ogun State. H1: Adequate efforts have been made to refuse the effects of global climate change on food security in Ogun State. Significance of the Study Every research work is a contribution to already existing knowledge. Therefore, as the world is dynamic and problems are a continuous part of man’s existence and people will always continue to struggle for survival and as a result of this people will always be moved to investigate and factors responsible for such problems and then going beyond this to proffer solutions for this problems. In as much as global climate change remains prevalent in our country today and threatens the availability of food in the society, it is therefore pertinent to carry out this study so as to bring to the awareness and understanding of people the importance of a good agricultural system and environmental consciousness. Scope of the Study The scope of the study is primarily on global climate change and its impact on food security in Nigeria especially in Ogun state. It will examine the causes and consequence of the phenomenon of climate change and how it has generously affected the availability of food in Ogun state. 1.8 Limitation of the Study The limitation to this study has been inaccessibility to data, time involvement in unplanned activities such as school meetings, seminars and so on. Methodology of the Study Secondary sources of data shall be employed in this work and they include; relevant books concerning the topic, newspaper, journal articles, magazines, encyclopaedias and the internet shall be made use of. Primary sources of data would also be used as the topic of study is a recent phenomenon and is still in occurrence on daily basis and so the effects would be studied by visits to the rural areas of Ogun states where agricultural practices are happening and also, primary tools would be applied as interviews would be conducted and questionnaires would be distributed. Sources of Data Collection Secondary sources of data are employed in this work and they include; relevant books concerning the topic, newspaper, journal articles, magazines, encyclopaedias and the internet shall be made use of. Primary sources of data would also be used as the topic of study is a recent phenomenon and is still in occurrence on daily basis. Sources of Data Collection The effects of global climate change are studied by frequent visits to the rural areas of Ogun states where agricultural practices are happening and also, primary tools would are applied as interviews would be conducted and questionnaires would be distributed. Interviews are conducted with the commissioner of agriculture in Ogun State; Mrs Ronke Shokefun and the commissioner of environment; Dr Lanre Tejuoso. Techniques of Data Analysis Descriptive form of data analysis is employed in this project work as am going to be describing phenomenon that is in existence. Descriptive method of data analysis describes systematically the fact, qualities, characteristics of a given population, event or area of interest as factually and accurately as possible to proffer answers to questions asked by the problem of study. This study describes the events of global climate change and how it has taken a prominent position in affecting food security. Outline Of Study This research is made up of five chapters and each chapter analyses the following: Chapter one focuses on the introductory aspect of the research work which discusses the following: background of study, statement of problem, research questions, significance of study, scope and limitation of study, objectives of the study, research methodology and so on. Chapter two attempts a literature review and discusses the theoretical framework. In this chapter we will be analysing previous arguments that have been laid out by scholars in the field of this study and so be using a thematic structure to help further our understanding of the phenomenon of this study. The literature review aspect of this chapter helps the researcher to relate with the scholarly works and writings in the field of study while the theoretic framework helps the researcher base his research on a specific theory that is in line and helps to further explain his research. Chapter three is an overview of global climate change and its effect on food and food security that is the major changes that have been experienced since the inception of climate change in Nigeria especially in Ogun State. Also, how it has disrupted the production and distribution of food in the society focusing mainly on the effects of global climate change and food security in Ogun state, Chapter four focuses on the analyses of data gathered and thorough explanation of the results gotten from the statistical data. Chapter five attempts summary of the study and makes recommendation, it also concludes the work. REFERENCES Ansel, E. Taofeeq A. (2010).†Challenges of Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change in Nigeria† a Synthesis from the Literature  », Field Actions Science Reports [Online], Vol. 4, 2010, retrieved on 17 December 2012 from http://factsreports.revues.org/678/volume 4. Apata, T.G. (2011) â€Å"Effect of global climate change on Nigerian agriculture: An empirical analysis† CBN journal of applied statistics, volume 2 number1 pp.31-45. Ayinde, O. Muchie, M. Olatunji, G. (2011). â€Å"Effects of climate change on agricultural productivity in Nigeria: A Co- integration Model Approach† Journal of Human Ecology volume 35 number 3, pp.189- 194. Medugu, N. (2012) â€Å"Nigeria and Global Climate Change issues† as retrieved on the 28th of August 2013, from the website http://environmentalsynergy.wordpress.com/2012/07/01/nigeria-and-global-climate-change-issues/ Odjugo, A.O. (2011) â€Å"Climate change and global warming: the Nigerian perspective† journal of sustainable development and environmental protection, volume 1 number 1 pp.6- 17. Odjugo, A.O. (2010). â€Å"Regional Evidence Of climate change in Nigeria† journal of geography and regional planning volume 3 number 6, pp.142-150. Oyinbo, O, Rekwot, G.Z, Ugbagbe, O.O (2013). â€Å"Socio- Economic Implications Of Climate Change On Food Security And Livelihood in Nigeria : A Desk Review. Department of Agricultural and Economics and Rural Sociology Faculty Of Agriculture/ Institute For Agricultural Research. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Yusuf, N. (2012) â€Å"Climate change, social transition and Nigeria’s economic development† journal of international NGO volume7, number 2, pp.35-38. Climate Change; Challenge For Nigeria’s Food Security retrieved form http://bivnze.wordpress.com/2010/11/11/climate-change-challenge-for-nigerias-food-security National Planning Commission, Nigeria’s vision 20: 2020, October 2009. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Global Climate Change; Vital signs of the planet, July 2013. 1

Riordan Manufacturing MRP Evaluation Project Essay -- Information Syst

Overview Scope of the Project Riordan Manufacturing can continue to expand by reducing the inventory cost of raw materials and finished goods. Riordan currently has a legacy MRP Information System (IS) in place, and this project provides an excellent opportunity to upgrade the infrastructure to allow for a more cost-efficient way to track inventory. Goals of the Project Riordan would like to develop or acquire an MRP system that will track and manage raw materials and finished product inventory across all plants to help ensure reduced inventory costs throughout the entire company. Business Objectives The exploratory committee has identified the following as the Business Objectives for this project: • Accurately track and manage raw materials and finished goods • Reduce inventory cost of raw materials and finished goods • Improve MRP infrastructure Measures of Success The following tasks will be performed to measure the success of the project at six (6) months and one (1) year: • An inventory analysis validating the accuracy of tracked inventory • A cost analysis comparing the cost of inventory management to previous reports • Hire an IS analysis firm to analyze the new Riordan MRP system's efficiency Statement of Scope, Objectives, and Constraints Current Needs Riordan Manufacturing needs to reduce the inventory cost of raw materials and finished goods. To reduce these costs, Riordan would like to develop or acquire an MRP system that can accurately track and manage raw materials and finished product inventory across all plants. Objective I am investigating the feasibility of developing or acquiring an MRP/MRPII information system to ensure that Riordan can accurately track and manage raw materials and ... ...w for better tracking of goods, which prevents lost materials. This, in turn, will allow Riordan to reduce the cost of inventory and allow us to gain sales with lower customer prices. The third objective is to improve the MRP infrastructure. Removing the legacy equipment and slow data lines will allow much more inventory to be processed. This will increase productivity throughout all of the plants. Conclusion Riordan Manufacturing will more than recover the expenditures of this IT project within two years of the upgrade. Riordan will experience an increase in sales and a decrease in inventory loss due to accurate and low-cost inventory management. On-going costs will be minimized with an internal IT department handling support and maintenance of the new system. All of the project's objectives have been met, and Riordan's expectations have been fulfilled.

Brazil Macroeconomics Essay

The country of choice is Brazil for the following reasons: it is a booming economy, which provides some stark contrast with the stagnation and ever-mentioned phrase ‘double-dip recession’ which now commonly used in the West. Macroeconomics is concerned with the study of aggregate economy, which embodies all nationally relevant economic indicators. The common indicators are the unemployment rate, the rate of inflation, the GDP per capita, economic growth, the economic cycle, and the labor force. Since 2003, Brazil’s economy has been growing steadily. It has been improving its macroeconomic stability despite a small crisis in 2008 which saw its growth rate decline to 2.6%. In 2010 it grew by 7.6% amid renewed confidence from foreign investors. Part of the reason for this is the high interest rates which make it attractive to foreign investors. Note also that this was its highest growth in 25 years, whilst people especially given that many economies were struggling a t the same time. Furthermore, the continuing flows of investment into the manufacturing sector have provided greater backbone to the economy. Note that a commonly cited reason for the economic struggle of the UK for example is its everlasting trading deficit. It does not export enough, it does not manufacture enough. With natural resources such as tin, clay, uranium, platinum, petroleum, cocoa, gold, wood, and hydroelectric power (and much more), Brazil is generally recognized as one of the naturally richest countries on Earth in terms of quantity and probably the richest in terms of variety of resources. The subject being treated here is not a comparative analysis between Brazil, an emerging economy and the declining economies of the West. Comparative analysis will only be used briefly in order to further confirm the great performance of this economy since 2003. In the arena of macroeconomics, it is essential to look at things from a national and international standpoint and therefore the performance of one economy is not only relative to its past performance but also relative to other economies in the world. In the past decade Brazil’s Government has combined fiscal policy has been used at times to stave off excessive inflation and encourage consumption. The reason why this has worked out is that in the long-run, the country has consistently been creating jobs both in the manufacturing and the services sectors, which in unison with fiscal policy have helped keep a lid on inflation in the past ten years. This point of success will be analyzed inn depth given that this country was previously known to have huge inflationary problems prior to the last decade. http://www.bbc.co.uk http://www.indexmundi.com/brazil/economy_profile.html http://www.thomaswhite.com/explore-the-world/brazil.aspx

Essay on Jack Welch General Electrics Revolutionary

Essay on Jack Welch General Electrics Revolutionary Essay on Jack Welch: General Electrics Revolutionary Essay on Jack Welch: General Electrics RevolutionaryWhile analyzing the text â€Å"Jack Welch: General Electrics Revolutionary†, I found that Welch made to thrive one of the largest and most complex companies in the world. He managed to do that as a CEOof General Electric (GE). In this paper work I am giving the characterization of this case and Jack Welch’s management innovations. That is the goal of my paper. At the end I conclude my work with summarizing all aspects previously stated.Jack Welch was able to make difficult changes within GE due to his personal values and believes. According to his words, his character was made by his parents, who taught him to be independent, active and strong. That were his parents, especially mother, who draw a line of certain moral believes for him. Welch’s classmates remember him to be very demanding and that he trounced people by trying harder. Hockey-playing years in college had an influence on his management skills as wel l. The constructive conflict was often used by Jack Welch as a method by which he made his managers to defend their views.Jack Welch took office in April 1981 and claimed that he will make General Electric the most profitable, highly diversified company on earth. That was a difficult task, because of numerous factors. A high level of competition and serious decline of economy in the U.S. had a pretty bad influence on General Electric. In spite of all that factors, Jack Welch was determined to reform all business strategy in order to make GE number onecompany in every business branch. In order to achieve these goals, Welch made the â€Å"three circle concept†.All businesses within GEwere divided into core, high technology, or service areas. The fifteen businesses that dominated their markets could be placed in a circle and other ones had to be divested. Welch developed directions for every circle of his business. Healso marched under the standard of destaffing. Ithelped reduce unnecessary bureaucracy.Jack Welch understood that removing unnecessary bureaucracy also requires cultural changes within the company. He wanted that all employees were thinking external. They were ought to compare their work results with the work results of their competitors, which are out there in the world.Welchwas confident that good business leader should always listen to his employees. It is important to have certain vision, but it is even more important to be reachable for the employees. True leader is obliged to communicate with his people and he should always tell them the truth. Jack Welchstated that the effectiveness of the company depends on self-confidence of its managers. Insecure managers create complexity.Welch decided to compensate the capital changings within the company to his employees.He also wanted to give more recognition to individual contributors. That was the right thing to do from moral and ethical perspectives.In 1989 Jack Welch implemented such importan t activity for managers as Work-Out. During Work-Out managers were able to solve different problems, list all their complaints, debate all the solutions and give their presentations at the final day. Work-Out helps to redefining the relationship between boss and subordinate; it also forces people to communicate with each other and that is very important in such a diversified company as GE.Another one remarkable innovation of the GE was implementing Best Practices of other companies. Basically, Welch took all effective management ideas from other companies and implemented it to GE, with the consent of previously mentioned companies.There also has been made several changes in order to make GE boundary-less company.In conclusion I would like to state that Jack Welch truly made a revolution within General Electric. He managed to transform it into a highly effective company and a perfect working place for free, creative and open people. At the same time Welch preserved dignity and corpor ate ethics within competitive market.